Diamond's answer to the biggest question in human history is that the environment dealt the hands. Not intelligence, not culture, not any quality of the people involved. Which continent you were born on determined which wild plants and animals were standing around waiting to be domesticated, and everything downstream of that, farming surpluses, cities, writing, steel, and the diseases that came with living next to livestock, followed from the draw. The question itself came from a beach in New Guinea in 1972, where a local politician named Yali asked Diamond why white people had so much cargo and his people so little. Diamond spent twenty-five years on the reply.
The mechanism is more specific than most summaries make it sound. Of roughly 148 large mammal species that were even plausible candidates for domestication, humans managed 14, and 13 of those lived in Eurasia. The rest failed for reasons Diamond enjoys cataloging: zebras bite and refuse to let go, gazelles panic themselves to death against fences, grizzlies grow too slowly to be worth the feed. Eurasia also runs east to west, so a crop domesticated in the Fertile Crescent could travel thousands of miles along the same latitude and still grow. The Americas and Africa run north to south, across climate bands, and their innovations stalled at the borders.
The chapter on Cajamarca is the best writing here. On 16 November 1532, Francisco Pizarro captured the Inca emperor Atahualpa in the middle of an army of eighty thousand men, using 168 Spaniards, some horses, and a great deal of nerve. Diamond takes that afternoon apart layer by layer, working backward from steel swords to the literacy that told Pizarro how Cortes had done it, to the herd animals that gave Europeans both cavalry and smallpox. The chapters on germs and on writing carry the same weight. Smallpox and measles came out of the barnyard, and the epidemics that emptied the Americas ahead of the conquistadors were the sharpest edge geography ever handed anyone.
The objections are nearly as old as the book's success. Historians and anthropologists have argued for three decades that the framework leaves almost nothing for human decisions to do, and the charge of environmental determinism sticks in places. The last third is where it shows most. Explaining why Eurasia rather than the Americas is one problem, and Diamond handles it well; explaining why Western Europe rather than China is a different and harder one, and the answer he offers, that Europe's fractured coastline kept it usefully divided while a unified China could cancel its own navy by decree, is the least tested idea in the book. Diamond also restates his thesis at the head and foot of nearly every chapter, and across 650 pages that repetition becomes a real cost. And the book is now from 1997, so some of the archaeology beneath it has shifted, most visibly the dates for when people first reached the Americas.
Why you should read
- Readers of Sapiens and Why Nations Fail
- Anyone who wants deep causes instead of dates and battles
- Readers comfortable with biology, botany, and linguistics
- Fans of one big argument tested across continents
What to expect
- Roughly 650 pages with the thesis restated often
- Set-piece history chapters mixed with technical detail
- Long stretches on seeds, crops, and animal behavior
- A confident argument that has drawn decades of pushback
Still, the argument reset the terms. Before this book, the interesting question about 1532 was how 168 men pulled it off. After it, the interesting question is why the ships were sailing west across the Atlantic instead of east across the Pacific, and no amount of subsequent quarreling has put that question back in the box.